The three main parts of rhetorical argument are
Invention includes the subject matter, with identifying the matter at hand, and the ability to persuade the audience. "The means of persuasion include, first direct evidence, such as witnesses and contracts, which the speaker 'uses' but does not invent; second, 'artistic' means of persuasion, which include the presentation of the speaker's character as trustworthy, logical, logical argument that may convince the audience, and the pathos or emotion that the speaker can awaken in the audience. The artistic means of persuasion utilize 'topics', which are ethical or political premises on which an argument can be built or are logical strategies, such as arguing from cause to effect" (Kennedy 4-5)
Arrangement means the "organization of a speech into parts, through the order in which the arguments are presented, whether the strongest first or toward a climax, is sometimes discussed." The arrangement should include an introduction, narration, proof, and conclusion (Kennedy 5).
Style is how the speaker says the material. Kennedy notes that "there are two parts to style, 'diction,' or the choice of words; and 'composition,' the putting together of words into sentences, which includes periodic sentence structure, prose rhythm, and figures of speech." Theophrastus (Aristotle's student) identified four virtues of style: correctness (of grammar and usage), clarity, ornamentation, and propriety (Kennedy 6).
Bibliography:
Kennedy, George. A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton, NJ: Princeton U.P., 1994.
Aristotle & Persuasion
In the Rhetoric, Aristotle distinguishes three means of
persuasion which can be produced by the rhetorician's art
1) argument (the "proper task" of rhetoric--see other side of handout on
logic)
2) the character of the speaker
3) the disposition created in the hearer
The latter two types of persuasion are achieved by the following
means:
1. Pathos (Emotion)
Definition: "Creating a certain disposition in the audience"
(Rhetoric 1356a, 1377b). An emotional appeal that secures the goodwill
of the hearer
Types:
A. lay claim to qualities that the audience will respect
B. stress disadvantages of speaker's situation as a claim to pity
C. arouse hostility against opponent
D. generate prejudice against the opponent through tangential or irrelevant
information.
E. incite fear
F. plea for pity
2. Ethos (Moral Character)
Definition: Use of claims about speaker's moral character to gain trust
of audience. The province of ethos is wisdom, virtue, and goodwill.
Types:
A. appeal to age & experience
B. reverence for civic virtue
C. patriotism and public-spiritedness
D. displays of piety
E. follow rules of decorum (e.g. avoid delicate subjects)
F. model restraint
Bibliography
Carey, Christopher, "Rhetorical Means of Persuasion," Persuasion: Greek Rhetoric in Action, ed. Ian Worthington. London: Routledge, 1994: 26-45.
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